Three Big Bangs Read online

  THREE BIG BANGS

  Three Big Bangs

  Matter-Energy, Life, Mind

  Holmes Rolston III

  COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS NEW YORK

  COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS

  Publishers Since 1893

  New York Chichester, West Sussex

  cup.columbia.edu

  Copyright © 2010 Columbia University Press

  All rights reserved

  E-ISBN 978-0-231-52684-5

  Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

  Rolston, Holmes, 1932-

  Three big bangs : matter-energy, life, mind / Holmes Rolston III.

  p. cm.

  Includes bibliographical references (p.) and index.

  ISBN 978-0-231-15639-4 (cloth : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-0-231-52684-5 (electronic)

  1. Evolution. I. Title.

  B818.R65 2011

  113—dc22 2010003254

  A Columbia University Press E-book.

  CUP would be pleased to hear about your reading experience with this e-book at [email protected].

  References to Internet Web sites (URLs) were accurate at the time of writing. Neither the author nor Columbia University Press is responsible for URLs that may have expired or changed since the manuscript was prepared.

  CONTENTS

  LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

  PREFACE

  1. The Primordial Big Bang: Matter-Energy

  Explosive Startup and Ongoing Expansion

  A Singular Universe: Unfolding Order

  Logical Explosion: A Theory of Everything?

  A Biogenic/Anthropic Universe

  Cosmic Results: Predictable and Surprising

  2. Life: Earth’s Big Bang

  Proactive Genetic Information and Order

  Explosions: Combinatorial and Evolutionary

  Biodiversity and Biocomplexity

  Expanding Neuro-sentience: Felt Experience

  Escalating Co-option: Serendipity

  Evolutionary Headings: Surprising or Inevitable?

  3. Mind: The Human Big Bang

  Theory of Mind: The Human Singularity

  Hyperimmense Brain: Neural Explosion

  Ideational Uniqueness: Cultural Explosion

  Symbolic Explosion: Human Language

  Mind: Predictable or Surprising?

  Spirited Persons: The Ultimate Marvel

  Presence with Presence

  REFERENCES

  INDEX

  ILLUSTRATIONS

  Figure 1.1. Symmetry-breaking at the big bang explosion

  Figure 2.1. Diversification of life through time for all organisms

  Figure 2.2. Diversification of life through time for continental organisms

  Figure 2.3. Diversification of life through time for marine organisms

  Figure 2.4. Average number of plant species found in local floras

  Figure 2.5. Species diversity changes in vascular plants

  Figure 2.6. Changes in the composition of vertebrate orders and numbers of insect genera

  Figure 2.7. Changes in plant species diversity in Silurian-Devonian times

  Figure 2.8. Changes in plant species diversity in Carboniferous-Lower Cretaceous times

  Figure 2.9. Changes in plant species diversity in Cretaceous-Tertiary times

  Figure 2.10. Changes in species diversity in Silurian-Tertiary times

  Figure 2.11. Diversity of fossil vertebrates

  Figure 2.12. Evolutionary development by endosymbiosis

  Figure 3.1. Increasing cranial capacity in the hominoid line

  PREFACE

  Plato argued, famously, that we ought to “carve nature at the joints” (Phaedrus 265e). I plan to “carve nature at the explosions.” There have been three big bangs: generating matter-energy, generating life, generating the human mind. These explosions form no simple continuum but a complicated, diffracted, exponential story. “Big bang” is here a metaphor for critical, exponential, nonlinear bursts with radical consequences for exploring new state spaces with novel combinatorial possibilities. Using another term, there have been three “big singularities.”

  En route we will have to use our big heads to avoid what I might call the rarification fallacy, the idea that what is rare is unimportant. Are the singularities signals revealing the nature of nature? Transcendent Presence in, with, and under nature? The three big bangs raise big questions, ultimate questions.

  Seeking “theories of everything” is tolerated, even encouraged, within astrophysical cosmology, but if a metaphysician seeks a “grand narrative,” that is often discouraged as an impossible quest. The world is too big and too complex even to think about all in one go. The best we can do is philosophy piecemeal. Equally, anyone who seeks “foundations” is nowadays thought to be hopelessly archaic. My search here is “archaic” in a better sense, a search for the elemental, fundamental givens we encounter in nature. Finding these, what worldview can we build?

  Socrates claimed: ‘The unexamined life is not worth living” (Apology 38). “Know thyself.” Yes, but: “Life in an unexamined world is not worthy living either.” Humans are the only species capable of realizing how grand is this world they inhabit, the astronomical universe, the panorama of life that vitalizes this planet, as well as of examining themselves and the minds with which they do so. One needs encounter with the nature of these three big bangs—matter-energy, life, mind—to become a three-dimensional person. Foundations or not, one does need to be inclusive, comprehensive in one’s worldview. Today, the examined life is not possible without examining the world in terms of these three big bangs.

  Discovering the three big bangs has required the genius of millennia of human history; today we see further because we “stand on the shoulders of giants” (Newton). At the same time, the nature we have discovered with such collective genius is inescapably right there “in your face” in the great outdoors for anyone to see. A walk in a forest confronts you with life surrounding; the starry night sky is over your head. Facing life surrounding, facing the night sky, you realize mind behind your face: the facing mind.

  We can take Albert Einstein as an icon of discovering the first big bang in the astronomical heavens (or at least of contemporary physics); we can take Charles Darwin as an icon of discovering the second big bang, evolutionary life on Earth. But then the third big bang inescapably confronts us. Continuing to take Einstein and Darwin as icons, the marvel is not just heavens above or earth beneath; the marvel is equally, indeed more so, the human minds capable of such knowledge.

  This is a short book for searchers, students, and academics, and also for the general literate reader. In this search, I make full effort to put readers in contact with the original sources and authorities. We here try to look over their shoulders to see what those in the know know. Or, since at cutting edges the experts often still wonder, where they think the intellectual frontiers are. We humans today, in a new millennium, seem poised on the edge of yet another combinatorial information explosion, with escalating possibilities in science and technology, evidenced in the recent decoding (and possible transforming) of our own genome and in unprecedented information storing, sharing, and processing on the Internet. Wondering where we are, wondering who we are, we will be better able to wonder what we ought to do.

  No one can know firsthand all the details of the materials we survey; that would require a mastermind in cosmology, microphysics, evolutionary history, paleontology, genetics, molecular biology, neuroscience, psychology, logic, ethics. Still, I write with the persuasion that good philosophers and theologians, good inquiring minds, can look over the shoulders of those who are doing these things and spot what is metaphysically interesting. In one sense, doing this, we are jacks of all trades
, masters of none. In another sense, we are more inclusive, more comprehensive than the scientists.

  Then again, whatever the philosophers may say with their epistemological doubts, the sciences do demand more accounting of these singular data points: matter, life, mind. The scientists have developed strategies—theories, instruments, critical methods—that do approximate a real world. Astrophysics has discovered a vast universe, deep space and time; evolutionary biology has documented a vast fossil record. Whatever one thinks about the social construction of science, it is irrational to deny that such discoveries are of what is objectively there: galaxies and fossils; and that these record a long and eventful past that precedes us and makes our contemporary cognizing presence possible.

  Both the first and the second big bangs resulted in us: the Homo that is so sapiens. A third has taken place within us, the mind’s big bang in the explosion of cultures with radical capacities for the generation and cumulative transmission of ideas—knowledge, wisdom. “Man is the measure of things,” said Protagoras, another Greek philosopher (recalled in Plato, Theaetetus, 152). Perhaps better: “Humans are the measurers of things.” We here seek to take the measure of heavens above and earth beneath. That will force taking measure of ourselves.

  The measure of all three is radical genesis; in the end we must ask the questions with which Genesis begins: wondering about creation resulting in persons who image God. We are better placed than any generation in human history to ask these questions, to take the measure of them. But answers to ultimate questions still lie almost beyond our reach. If found, answers will focus on the three big bangs.

  Boom! Boom! Boom! Be forewarned: the territory ahead is intellectually explosive.

  CHAPTER I

  The Primordial Big Bang

  Matter-Energy

  Scientists have been discovering astronomical deep space and deep time, as well as pushing “deep down” from molecular to micro nature. Time has expanded to almost forever, the universe expanded to staggering, inconceivable distances across intergalactic space. We now know of phenomena at structural levels from quarks to quasars. We measure distances from picometers to the extent of the visible universe in light-years. We measure time from picoseconds to the billions-of-years age of the universe. Putting such discoveries together, we have found dramatic interrelationships between astronomical and atomic scales that give us a startling picture of our physical universe. At some risk of vertigo, let’s explore the explosive startup and ongoing expansion of this lavish universe—the first big bang.

  Do the macrophysics and the microphysics affect our metaphysics?

  Explosive Startup and Ongoing Expansion

  The universe is expanding through the stretching of space between galaxies, and if one runs the history rearward, it shrinks to a point of startup, a primordial hot big bang, now dated about 13.7 billion years ago. Cosmologists have made claims about the duration of the “early universe”—from about one microsecond after the initial “singularity” (as they may call it) to several hundred thousand years (400,000 years) as a superhot universe. They make further claims about an initial “inflation” when the originating universe, less than 10-35 seconds old, jumped in size by an enormous factor (about 1060), expanding faster than the speed of light (Guth 1997; Linde 1990). At that time all of the present universe was somehow packed into space smaller than that of a typical atom, and this at extremely high temperature.

  Cosmologists can wonder if their capacities to describe what was going on under these conditions are credible, since most of the astrophysical and microphysical processes we otherwise know would there break down. Most rather doubt that we can know anything before what they call Planck time, when the universe was 10-43 seconds old (though see below on symmetry-breaking). Perhaps even time itself appears somehow in the startup out of an initially atemporal big bang, so that to think of some “time zero” is misleading. Nevertheless, scientists are at near consensus about an originating singular huge explosion.

  This earliest point of the present universe was tagged “the big bang” by Fred Hoyle, first derisively, but the name stuck. So the first big bang is an explosion of matter-energy. The creation of something out of nothing at the beginning of time was clearly a remarkable occurrence. Or if there was something before, or if the “nothing” was some sort of creative vacuum, the explosion was still spectacular. There was explosion, inflation compounding explosion, and continuing explosion after that. That is superexplosion. The result is huge: if in some spaceship we could travel at the speed of light, it would take us billions and billions of years to cross it. This huge universe resulted from an explosion starting as a tiny speck. (Actually all this was silent. “If a tree falls in the forest, and there is no one to hear it….”)

  Since the big bang, whether explosion continues is a matter of perspective. The universe is still expanding, though at a diminished rate. There is some evidence that the presently continuing expansion is speeding up. There was creativity at the primordial big bang, which launched ongoing creativity in the expansion. Here the expansion rate (the ongoing explosion rate, if you like) proves critical. If the expansion rate of the universe had been a little faster or slower, then the universe would already have recollapsed or the galaxies and stars would not have formed. This expansion rate figures into astronomical calculations such as those for the strengths of the four fundamental forces, or of the cosmological constant. We return to the often puzzling character of these astronomical facts below.

  From one perspective, in the big bang, everything is flying apart in a universe continually expanding and generally uniform (isomorphic); but from another perspective, there are local departures from the overall smoothness. In these non-isomorphic regions, under the influence of gravity, matter clumps up into stars, into galaxies, the loci of ongoing creativity. The particulars of such stars and galaxies may depend on earlier random fluctuations, perhaps even quantum indeterminacies. Or they may depend on the intersections of previously unrelated causal lines (stars crashing into each other) or involve chaotic features. But the overall processes are nomothetic, lawlike (making celestial mechanics possible, or explaining stellar evolution).

  This energetic matter not only clumps, it complexifies. Nature aggregates and builds. Across this long time span in the rapidly expanding universe, the stars are the furnaces in which all but the very lightest elements are forged, a process called nucleosynthesis (Clayton 1983). Further, the various heavier elements—carbon, oxygen, sulphur, nitrogen, silicon, all of the elements heavier than hydrogen and helium (also when the universe was still hot, some lithium)—are synthesized in proportions that make later planets and life possible. These elements, made of protons, neutrons, electrons, inner positive nuclei and outer negative shells, are forged with bonding capacities, almost like grappling hooks, making possible endless recombinations. The stars run their courses and some explode as supernovae, dispersing the heavier elements from their production sites throughout space. Such matter is condensed as planets, and life evolves out of such elements.

  From our present human perspective, the cosmic big bang may still seem like a lot of waste—all those galaxies, stars, asteroids, cosmic dust, dark matter, dark energy. Do we really need a universe with a hundred billion galaxies, each with a hundred billion stars? Maybe we are lost out there in the stars. Explosions make a lot of noise (loud sound from the burst of power), a lot of “noise” (chaotic background disturbance confusing any signal). Well, maybe the first big bang did not make a sound, but is there any signal in the scattering of galaxies, stars, asteroids, black holes, and so on? Even if much of the bang was meaningless noise, from this “singular” universe, some of the results of the huge explosion continue as the Earth, the earth, the dirt under our feet, the flesh and blood of our bodies and brains. And we have no scientific theory as to how we might have obtained such bodies and brains without some remarkable elemental source, such as this singular big bang provides.

  The universe is so
huge that we can see only the parts of it in our light cone, the area within which the light has had time to get to us. The Hubble Space Telescope has imaged galaxies over 10 billion light-years distant. But if the scale of the universe were much reduced (to galaxy size for instance, 100,000 light-years across), there would not have been enough time for stars to form and generate the elements beyond hydrogen and helium, elements that later make life possible. John Barrow surveys the universe: “Many of its most striking features—its vast size and huge age, the loneliness and darkness of space—are all necessary conditions for there to be intelligent observers like ourselves” (Barrow 2002:113). There is, in fact, a lot that is quite singular resulting from this singularly huge explosion.

  A Singular Universe: Unfolding Order

  Explosions can be rather messy, often more disruptive than creative. Our exploding universe, however, settled into an expansion rapid enough to prevent collapse on itself and slow enough to continue for billions of years, permitting galaxies, stars, and planets to form. So, despite this explosive character of the infant universe, the result produces much order. The astronomical (and terrestrial) realms of matter-energy are lawlike—mechanistic, a clockwork universe. The initial conditions at the big bang were, presumably, idiographic, that is, unique to this universe. But those fermenting conditions produced a coherent universe that is physically nomothetic, lawlike, and ordered, whatever the chaotic elements.

  Scientists typically claim that the laws of physics and chemistry are true and unchanging all over the universe, often in contrast with the biological sciences, where it may be claimed there are no universal laws at all, only generalizations in an earthbound natural history. Physicists may indeed brag that theirs is the most ordered of the sciences, with more mathematical and logical rigor than biology, psychology, sociology. Physicists can predict eclipses centuries hence; economists cannot predict the stock market tomorrow. Think of all the equations in physics, such as E=mc2, or the reactions in chemistry, based on the atomic table posted behind the lecture podium in every chemistry classroom. The impressive rigor of physics and chemistry is seen in their metric character, with accompanying predictability and testability.